Visions in Bible and Mahabharata

Religious tolerance is necessary today. Most of the problems in our Indian society is caused by religious fanaticism. One of the reasons for religious fanaticism is ignorance. Since we do not know about other religion fully, we often show our animosity in holding the claims to the truth of one religion as superior to other religion.
Christianity needs to change a lot as far as claims to religious superiority is concerned. In India, for example, why after 2000 years of Christian presence, are we still only a minority? It is because we have not accepted the culture and religiosity of the soil. We have failed to accept it because we feel superior that our claims to the truth are superior, and our God is superior...
Today people say that Christianity has changed its rigorous position regarding other religions, and, it accepts the claims to the truth of other religions. I think that this is not so. What made the Church change? The pressure from outside is so great that the Church cannot but change its position. Therefore, we say that we accept the truth claims of other religion; we see goodness in other religion etc... But even in this position, we show our superiority, calling others anonymous Christians and labeling their unique claims to truth as Christian. The reason is that we have not accepted and do not respect other religions fully.
This study of mine on the theology of visions in Mahabharata and the Bible is a small initiative to show respect for the Hindu religion, so that it may lead me to live and preach the values of Christ in our Indian soil with mutual understanding and cooperation, respect and tolerance.

INTRODUCTION

"All people by nature desire to know" says Aristotle. This nature of human beings makes them beings, which always try to understand everything by reason. Man in himself has the faculty of philosophizing. Doubting and questioning are the special badges of man. In olden days man failed to find answers for many of the problems regarding himself and the universe. Apparently, he saw everything, but it remained a mystery to him. This difficulty in facing and answering the problems of self and of the universe led him to speculation and made him aware of the power that governs the whole universe. This awareness in man is the core essence of religion.
Religion originated gradually when men wondered at nature, and failed to find a solution to so many of his questions. To say that the origin of religion is as early as the origin of the universe would be incorrect. We can infer that primitive society in the very early stages of human existence did not have any religion at all. Only when man slowly started rationalizing to himself the critical moments of life, he understood himself to be in the hands of a great power. Therefore, to be freed in the critical moments of life, he started to worship that power as the supreme above all beings. He hoped to get rid of evil and achieve well-being by the help of that supreme power^[1]. Thus, he started to explain his experience with the power in his own terms. As generations passed, this orientation in man became increasingly intense, and the explanation he gave to his experience became part of his life. Myths and fables came to have great significance. By means of these man explained and celebrated his relation with the transcendent. As Bede Griffths points out, "Myth is the expression of the human mind and the source of all religion. One can see myth at work in the most advanced as in the most primitive religions"^[2].
Myths and other fables were expressed and narrated in the form of visions and dreams too. Every religion accepts divine revelation through dreams and visions. The sacred writings of the religions therefore speak at length about visions and other similar phenomena. As the Bible says, God makes direct contact with people through dreams and visions (Acts 2,17-18). The vision narratives in the scriptures give a message to the reader because though the narratives are in the form of myths and fables they are not pure myths to be neglected or ignored. Since the sacred writings of religion are faith expressions of man's relation to God, and this relation takes place in a historical situation, myth and history interweave the vision narratives in the scriptures. Thus, the vision narratives give a divine truth, historical or non-historical, in a mythical form. Therefore, a study on the inner meaning of vision narratives is of great value.
Vision in religion is an experience of spiritual realities or of earthly happenings beyond space and time. Visions are often considered revelation from divine beings giving warnings, instructions and prophecies^[3]. Vision also points to a special awareness of God shared by saintly men because of its ecstatic nature of the experience and the revelatory character of the knowledge^[4]. Often dreams and visions are seen together by many cultures. For, dreams were considered revelations by nearly all the races of antiquity. In the Indian culture, on the contrary, dreams were neither considered revelation nor of any use what so ever. A dreamless sleep is always welcomed because it gives the foretaste of Nirvana.
Today parapsychology considers visions as extrasensory perception. That is, visions are paranormal cognition. It is through visions we acquire information from the external world, not through the five sensory channels. On the contrary, materialists and rationalists deny this reality and consider visionaries as hysterics.
In some philosophies, sex is often used for visionary experiences. For example, in the dynamic meditation of Asho Rajneesh, Rajneesh accelerates sex in order to stimulate the sex center in a person, which in turn causes an energy to flow to the 'bramarandra' located at the top of the head, so that super-consciousness and visions may occur.
According to Zachner and his researches, certain drugs modify the normal human consciousness and produce a kind of ecstatic status in man^[5]. According to Huxley, visions and similar phenomena can be induced and produced by the use of drugs^[6]. Today's psychological investigations understand the role of body chemistry in the super-conscious activities. Fasting and an austere life causes vitamin and sugar deficiencies and they create change in cerebral that is necessary for the visionary experience in man. Dr. Leary therefore advises people to take LSD and other drugs to experience visions because he feels that the ancient methods of fasting, flagellation, solitude, and diet control are not attractive to modern man^[7].
Can devils cause visions? According to Christian theology the devil can cause visions in order to delude us. Frightful and nightmarish dreams experienced by people are ascribed to the evil spirits^[8]. According to the mystic St. John of the Cross, careless and ignorant persons can be cheated by devil so that they may not experience the love of God fully. "In such instances" says the mystic, "not only will his (Satan's) visions take the place of God's but while his increase, those of God decrease"^[9].
Above all, vision is man's encounter with God. In this encounter, some religions stress the role of God, while some other religions stress the role of man. For some, it the initiative of man that gives him an encounter with the supreme, while for some, it is the contrary. Some understand visions as an encounter in and through nature. Thus, every religion and culture has visions through it understands and expresses it differently.
My intention in this paper is to study the vision narratives in Mahabharata and the Bible. My study on this particular topic is conditioned and limited due to many constraints. First, there is an absence of direct study of the source books. The Mahabharata was written in Sanskrit and the Bible in Hebrew and Greek. I have based by studies only on the translated works available. Another factor would be it is not possible to study all the vision narratives in these two scriptures as that would be a Himalayan task. I have restricted myself to only few categories of visions.
The whole work is divided into five chapters. In the first chapter, we have a general study on Mahabharata and an overall study on vision narratives. The second chapter deals with the Bible and the visions there. In the third and fourth chapter, a particular vision from Mahabharata and the Bible is studied in a more detailed way. The comparative assessment of the visions in Mahabharata and the Bible are to be found in the final chapter.

CHAPTER I

MAHABHARATA

A. General View on Mahabharata

India like Greece has produced two gigantic literatures the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. These extraordinary poems comprise the whole of Indian political, social and religious history. They mirror the Indian Hindu culture. Ramayana or the adventures of Rama, is Rama's combat with demonic forces and the recovery of his wife Sita who had been abducted by Ravana, the king of Ceylon. Mahabharata is the longest epic poem that the world has ever produced. It is ranked among the finest literary works ever attempted by humanity. Mahabharata speaks about the Great War that took place between two branches of the same family - the Kurus and the Pandavas - about the right to rule^[10]. The word Mahabharata means the great narration of the battle of the Bharatas. Ramayana is more refined in its style while Mahabharata is not so in the structure. Georg Fenerstein compares Mahabharata to a giant unpolished gem whose perfection and beauty lies in its very roughness^[11].
Vyasa is considered the author of Mahabharata. There is a reference to this in the first chapter of the work^[12]. According to one version, having conceived the Mahabharata, the sage Vyasa meditated on Brahma, the creator, so that he may help him in his mission of giving the sacred book to the world. Brahma extolled Vyasa to invoke Ganapathi (the elephant God) for assistance. Thus, Ganapathi became the scribe and wrote down the story while sage Vyasa sang them^[13].
Vyasa first imparted his poem to his pupil Vaisampayana, who in his turn recited the whole of it at the time of the Naga Yajna (snake sacrifice) of King Janamejaya^[14]. There it was heard by Suta Ugrassava, who in turn narrated the whole to the rishis of the Nimisha forest^[15]. From this we may infer that the present work Mahabharata was neither the work of any one author, nor was it written down at one particular time.
Scholars differ about the age of Mahabharata. The Mahabharata was not composed in its present form until a long after that in which the heroes of the poem lived and died. Some authors claim that the story might have taken place in the Vedic age, developed in the Brahmanic age and finally composed^[16]. Some other scholars conclude that the stories were developing and verses were composed orally throughout the first millennium B. C. ^[17] Winternitz who made a good study of early Indian literature concludes that Mahabharata cannot have received its present form earlier than the 4^th century B. C. and latter than the 4^th century A. D.^[18]
Mahabharata when compared to other epics of the east is really a massive written work. Its hundred thousand couplets are seven times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey put together. Mahabharata in its present form consists more than 90,000 couplets in 18 parvas or books^[19]. The poem, excluding the episodes and other negligible matters can be reduced to the length of 24, 000 slokas, the length actually suggested by a reference in the book I^[20].

1. Mahabharata an Epic

Mahabharata is considered one of the finest epic poems of the world. According to Arnold:

The subject of the epic poem must be someone great, complex action. The principle personage must belong to the high places of society and must be grand and elevated in their ideas. The measure must be of a sonorous dignity be fitting the subject. A mixture of dialogue, soliloquy and narration develops the epic.^[21]

When we analyze Mahabharata on this basis, it fulfills all the conditions laid down by Arnold and shines as a finest epic.
The subject of the epic is the Great War that took place in 'Kurushetra' between the Pandavas and Kauravas, two sections of a same race. Both the parties were assisted by various nations of the whole of India and thus the war was known as the 'war of Bharata'. Some scholars raise an objection saying that the Mahabharata does not properly speak of the great action, rather speaks of the life of the hero, i. e., the Pandavas. Mahabharata no doubt gives the life of Padavas and their race. However, it is clear from the introduction that Vyasa gives; the poets' primary aim is not to give the life story of Pandavas. The primary thing the poet intends is 'the Great War of Bharata'^[22].
The incidents in Mahabharata reveal the Indian political, social and religious scenario. The subsidiary stories that come along side the main story, in the form of incidental tales makes the poem enjoyable and fulfills all the requirements of an epic.
The main characters in the poem are good personalities with elevated ideas. The self sacrifice of Bhisma, the truthfulness and forgiveness of Gudhisthira, the love for justice and the desire to protect the weak from the strong of the Pandava brothers, their brotherly love and unity in managing one girl Draupathi as their wife, the exemplary chastity and devotion, wisdom and justice of Draupathi and Ganapathi are a few glimpses to this fact^[23].
To fulfill faithfully the definition of an epic, Mahabharata is developed by a mixture of dialogue, soliloquy and narrative. As in the western epics Iliad and Paradise Lost, Mahabharata has speeches, which are well conceived, eloquent and forcible and are apt, well suited for the characters^[24]. The numerous speeches in the epic dramatize the whole content. The stimulating discussions on the moral codes add glory to the work. The unlimited sayings and examples on all topics make the poem marvelous.
The incidents and scenes of Mahabharata have become familiar to every Indian from their childhood. They are the center of every stories and folklore and street plays at village festivals and social gatherings^[25]. This is due to the unity of Indian culture it presents. The cultural traditions of different parts of India are described in details with sympathy and pride. Thus an unified Indian culture is the striking feature of Mahabharata. Above all, it is the observance of 'Dharma' under any condition or in any adversity, is the duty which the Mahabharata tries constantly to inculcate through out its length^[26].
Thus in its structure, construction, contents and in whatever aspect possible, Mahabharata stands as a finest epic.

2. Mahabharata as History

The whole of Mahabharata is filled with myths, legends and many other stories. The obvious length of the epic does not tell only the basic story. The stories of Sakuntala, Nala, Damayanto, Savitri, Satyavan and many other fascinating narratives are found in the epic. Man and God often converse with each other. Man enters the abode of Gods in heaven and Gods consequently walk down on the earth. Man and Gods sometimes fight with each other and Gods bow down sometimes before men in defeat. Therefore the legitimate questions that arise in every human mind are: 'in what way is the Mahabharata historical?' Did the Great War ever take place? Whether Pandavas and Kauravas are real persons or imaginary creations? etc...
The central event of Mahabharata, the battle between the Kauravas and Pandavas is generally accepted as historical event^[27]. The battle on the plains of Kurushetra ended in the total destruction of two vast armies. There are diverse opinion on the point that when did the war took place actually. Basing on some astronomical data found in Mahabharata, Modak dates the event 7000 years back. Some scholars like Varaha Mihira believes that the battle was fought in 2604 B. C. Mr. Velandi Ayyar calculates the exact date of the battle as 14 October 1194 B. C.^[28] Therefore, it is generally accepted as a fact that there was a war between two groups of people. The question that arises in every mind when we speak of Mahabharata is whether the recorded events and narratives are historical.
To say an event is historical and to say that a narrative is historical are different. An event may be historical while the narration need not be so. Any ordinary man will realize while reading Mahabharata that Vyasa was not recording objective history, but historic realities clothed either in symbols and myths or in the language of philosophy^[29].

3. Mahabharata as a Sacred Book

In every religion, there are documents, which communicate religious truths. In Hinduism, 'sruthi' and 'smriti' are the two distinct categories of greater and lesser-sanctified scriptures. Sruthi is that which is heard or that which is communicated from the beginning. Smriti is that which is remembered. Sruthi is revelation proper. Smriti is the mixture of divine truths and human truths and traditions. It is derived god-experiences and second type of revelation. The epic Mahabharata is counted as smriti literature^[30].
Since the story is said to be happened in the Vedic age and composed in the Brahmanic age^[31], the Mahabharata clearly pictures the religious life of early Hinduism and its very early doctrine. The myths, legends, fables, dialogue are the discourses in religion. The Gods, saints, kings and other characteristics of the epic are the efficient mouthpieces of the Vedas and the Upanishads^[32]. Mahabharata thus becomes the main source of our knowledge of popular religious practices.
The Gods in Mahabharata are merely abstractions, personifications of the powers of nature. This clearly shows the developing stage of the religion. The people prayed to the Gods for rain, fire, light, wind etc. Even they had the God of death 'Yama'. Since the people are partly pastoral and partly agricultural, the most prominent and popular deity appears to be Indra, the giver of rain, the sovereign of the Gods^[33].
The Hindu ideal of tolerance and other religious moral codes of conduct are found in Mahabharata. The most stimulating discussions are found in Shantiparva and the Anusasanaparva^[34]. Above all Dharma, which is the core of Hinduism, bubbles in every pages of Mahabharata.

B. Visions in Mahabharata

As an epic, as a narrative of an historical event and as a religious book, Mahabharata is filled with man's encounter with the supernatural. Man's relation with the supernatural include visions in the first place. In myths, fables, and stories and in many other forms we have vision narratives in Mahabharata.
In Mahabharata, visions are mentioned to show the power of gods over human action, to teach a moral lesson, to express the unconscious reflections of the tensions of human experience, to show man's ascetic power and his holiness^[35]. Therefore, the nature of visions in Mahabharata differs.
When we analyze the visions in Mahabharata, a main division that we can make in the vision narratives is vision in history and vision in prehistoric periods. Certain visions appear to occur during the time of epic history. For example, Uttanka's vision of Krishna after the war (14,52-54). There are also other vision narratives that are situated in the mythic time of remotest antiquity. For example, Markendeya's vision of Pralaya (3,186-187).

C. Vision Narratives

The important vision narratives in Mahabharata can be studied under three main headings or categories. The theophany, visions of invocation and other visions.

1. Theophany

The word theophany derives from the two Greek words, god and to be revealed. Therefore Theophany simply means 'an appearance of God to man'^[36]. In Mahabharata, there are four important theophany. i) Vision of Krishna to Uttanka (14,52-54), ii) Naratha's vision of Narayana on the White Island (12,326), iii) Upamanya and Krishna's vision of Siva (13,14-15), iv) Dhirtarastra's vision of Krishna^[37].

i) Vision of Krishna to Uttanka: When the battle between Pandavas and Kauravas was over, Krishna said goodbye to the Pandavas and left for his land. On his way back, be met his old friend Uttanka. He was a Brahman, an ascetic. When Uttanka learns that Krishna was not able to secure peace among the Kauravas, he threatens to curse Krishna by his ascetic power. Krishna pacified the indignant brahmana and appeared to him in his all embracing form, the 'visvarupa' (14,54,3-5). Astonished Uttanka praises Krishna and begs him to withdraw his awesome form. Krishna then offers a boon or gift to Uttanka that he will have water always, that is, whenever he thirsts.
Sometimes latter, when thirsty in the desert, Uttanka thinks of his boon from Krishna. Meanwhile he is confronted by a dirty untouchable. The untouchable proceeds to urinate and offers the water to the thirsty Uttanka. When Uttanka angrily rejects the offer, the untouchable disappears and Krishna appears. Krishna explains to Uttanka that the offer was 'amirtha' from a disguised Indra. However, Krishna still feels bound by his offer of a boon and promises clouds to give him water in need. Even today, the clouds of the desert are called 'Uttanka Cloud'.
The vision of Uttanka in its first part explains the nature of Krishna's avatar. Though he was divine, the limitations of human state remain. That is why he was unable to prevent the catastrophic war. The second portion of the story is an origin myth about the desert clouds^[38].

ii) Naratha's vision of Narayana: This vision occurs in the 12^th book of the Mahabharata (12,326). Naratha meets Narayana at Badari where they are performing a worship service. Naratha was baffled because he considered Narayana to be the 'supreme god'. He wondered to whom the supreme Narayana offers worship. When Naratha learns that Narayana is worshiping a higher form of himself, he decides to go in search of a vision of Narayana's original nature. Therefore, he goes to the white Island, beyond the Meru Mountains. Naratha sings devotional songs to Narayana and concludes his praises with simple entreaty, "I am devoted to you and wish to see you". In response to this, Narayana shows his supernatural form (visvarupa). The Lord then offers a boon to Naratha and declares himself in a discourse of self-revelation. Narayana concludes his discourse saying, 'even Brahma has never had such a vision' (12,326.95). Naratha rushes back to Badari.
This vision teaches the road to 'divine dharshan'. Naratha wins the favor of Lord Narayana solely by means of asceticism and devotion^[39]. It is not mere words of 'bhakti' or 'stotra' that pleases god. Listing hundreds of names of god through divine praises does not express the intensity of our piety, rather the real quest to see god, as Naratha had; 'I am devoted to you, I wish to see you'.

iii) Krishna's vision of Siva: This Vision is placed in the 13^th book of Mahabharata. Krishna seeks the help of Siva that his wife might bear a son. He goes to the Himalayas to Upamayu's ashram, where Upamanyu narrates how he won the vision of Siva and his mundane request for milk fulfilled. Inspired by Upamanyu, Krishna becomes an ascetic and thus wins the vision of Siva, surrounded by all the celestial realities. Seeing the vision of Siva, Krishna finds it hard for him to face god. Therefore, he bows his head and sings a long divine praise. Siva offers eight boons, whereby Krishna gets his wish for a son.
In this vision too, we have a well structured narration, in which god appears as a result of prescribed actions of asceticism and devotional proclamation. Another thing to be noted in this vision is that Krishna is subservient to Siva. It is mainly a literature written for 'bhaktas', that takes one from the world of epic to the mystical world of gods^[40].

iv) Dhirtarshtra's Vision of Krishna: Dhirtarshtra is the father of Duryodana, born blind^[41]. The Pandavas, of their own violation, staked their Kingdom at dice play to Duryodana and went to the forest according to the contract. When the time of their exile was over, the Pandavas claimed their kingdom, and this was rejected by Duryodana. A cloud of war between Kauravas (Duryodana and his company) and Pandavas emerged. Under the evil genius of Sakuni, Duryodana refused all plans of compromise. Ganthari's^[42] attempt too is in vain. Duryodana give orders to seize Krishna. Krishna came to the court and disclosed his divinity. The blind Dhirtarshtra by the grace of Krishna temporarily regained his sight and was able to see Krishna in his Visvarupa. Having seen the visvarupa, he did not wish to see anything else and asked for blindness again^[43].
In this vision, Duryodana plans to humiliate Krishna, who works for peace. By showing his visvarupa, Sri Krishna demonstrates his divinity. By giving sight to Dhirtarshtra, he shows his power. By making him blind again, he fulfills the request by Dhirtarshtra.
In short, all the theophany narratives are crucial mode of theological expression go hand in hand with the epic's mainstream. Even apart from the epic, they give meaning and value to any reader. Though the theophany is in mythical forms, they contain a theology.

2. Visions by Invocation

In this category we see visions where human beings invite god in a particular moment of need or distress and god in his generosity or out of compulsion of the invitation, attempts to answer the call. The vision of sun god to Kunti, which comes in the Adi Parrva or first book of Mahabharata (1:112) and the vision of Krishna to Draupathi^[44] are typical examples of this category. As regards to the vision of sun god to Kunti, we have an elaborate study in the following chapter. We may confine ourselves to the vision of Krishna to Draupathi in this chapter.

i) Vision of Krishna to Draupathi: One day Durvasa, an irritable sage who always liked to test people, visited Duryodhana with his ten thousand disciples. Duryodhana lavishly entertained the sage and the guests. The sage in return asked him to seek a boon. Duryodhana in order to take revenge on Pandavas who were in exile, asked the sage to visit his brother in the forest, and suggested a time when he knew all the food prepared would have been eaten and none left for the unexpected guests. Durvasa went with his ten thousand disciples to the Pandavas, one day, after a midday meal. The sage then asked for food and went to bath in the river. Draupathi was greatly troubled because there was no food for the sage and there was hardly any time left to arrange for food. She then prayed earnestly to Krishna to deliver her from the wrath of the sage.
At once Krishna appeared before her. Draupathi was even more perplexed because having asked for food for the sage, Krishna in return asked her for food. The tiny bit of cooked vegetable and a grain of rice that was sticking to the rim of the vessel, which was given to him by Draupathi, satisfied Krishna. He then asked Bhima to tell the sage that the food is ready for them. When Bhima went and reported this, they in return said that they feel well fed and cannot eat anything more.
The theology behind this vision of Krishna is that god is at our disposal to help us. Another message the vision gives us is that the whole universe is contained in Krishna and when he is satisfied, the whole universe is satisfied^[45].

3. Other Visions

Mahabharata has other visions too, which do not fall into above categories. Hence, let us look into two of such visions.

i) Vision of the Pralaya: The Puranic sage Markandeya's vision of universal dissolution appears in the third book of Mahabharata (3,186-187). Markandeya tells this story to the Pandavas during their forest exile. The long-lived sage tells the cosmic dissolution which occurs at the end of a thousand Mahayugas. He alone has experienced it. After the pralaya, the seer finds himself afloat in the sea of chaos, fearful and baffled. After a brief exchange, he finds himself transported miraculously into a child's mouth. He spends a hundred years inside the body of the child, seeing the entire world. Markandeya in his delusion prays to god and is expelled from the child's mouth. He then wonders how he saw the whole world within the child's mouth. He then wonders how he saw the whole world within the child's body. The child then proceeds to explain the meaning and nature of his experience. The child identifies itself with all gods and deities and finally reveals that he becomes an avatar from time to time in order to protect dharma (3,187.26), a similar claim made by Krishna in Bhagavad-Gita (4.3)^[46].
Though the whole narration is mythic, recounting events of inconceivable antiquity, it clearly identifies Krishna to the Pandavas. Again, this plays the role of a prelude to Krishnaite reading of the epic as a whole^[47].

ii) Vision of Hanuman to Bhima: The Pandavas in their exile were wandering in the Himalayan region. One-day a breeze that blew from the northeast wafted a beautiful flower near Draupathi. Charmed by its fragrance, Draupathi asked Bhima to bring some flowers of that kind. Anxious to please his beloved, Bhima went in quest of that plant. He came to a plantain garden at the foot of a mountain and there saw a huge monkey shining like a blazing fire, which lay right across the path blocking it. Refusing to move from the way, the monkey asked Bhima to move him aside and make his way. Though exerted all his strength, Bhima could not move the animal a bit. Bhima then begs the animal to reveal its identity. The monkey reveals himself as Hanuman, the son of wind god and stops Bhima from going any further that way due to the danger that would threaten him on the way. Hanuman then showed his divine form. Bhima covered his eyes, unable to bear the dazzling light radiating from that figure. Hanuman then contracted his body, embraced Bhima, encourages Bhima to ask for a boon, and blesses him^[48].
Bhima and Hanuman were brothers and brothers are born to wind god^[49]. In this vision, Hanuman prevents Bhima from danger and blesses him to win the battle. He also reveals his brotherhood.

CHAPTER II

THE BIBLE

A. General View on the Bible

The word Bible refers to a number of books considered sacred and canonical among Christians^[50]. The Bible is also called scripture, a name which is a modified form of Latin 'scriptura', which means "what is written". The contents of the Bible narrate sacred history or the history of the salvation, which starts with the call of Abraham and reaches its climax in the death and resurrection of Christ^[51]. The Bible is the word of God in the sense it narrates the history of God's saving work among humanity. The Bible consists of two volumes, the old and new testament. Both proclaim the same Christ; the Old Testament announces him and the new testament sees him in action.
The protestant Bible consists of 66 books of which 39 belongs to the Old Testament and 27 to the New Testament. The catholic edition of the Bible embodies 72 books of which 45 belong to the Old and 27 to the New Testament. The Old Testament was originally divided into 3 parts: the Law (torah), the prophets (nebiim) and the writings (ketubim)^[52]. The New Testament is also similarly divided into historical books (the four gospels), the prophetic books (the epistles) and the apocalypse (revelation)^[53].

1. Formation of the Bible

The Bible is the word of God but formulated and expressed through human words^[54]. The Bible was originally written in Hebrew and Aramaic and Greek. Thus Bible reflects the historical, cultural context. Most part of the Bible, especially the Old Testament was written in Hebrew. The period may be roughly 950 - 100 B. C.^[55] The Hebrew text of the Old Testament attained its present form through the labor of many Jewish scribes, after a long process of gradual formation.
In the book of Jeremiah we have reference to the way the Biblical script was. With the pointed reed and ink (Jer 8,8; 36,18) they wrote on animal skins or papyrus that was kept in the form of a scroll^[56]. After the exile, Aramaic was in main use and Hebrew was slowly replaced by the other. Then it was translated into Greek by the Diaspora Jews and thus we have the Septuagint.
When we look at the formation of the Bible, we can see three stages in which the community felt the voice of divine authority in the so-called religious writings. In the first place, we have the laws of a social and religious nature, which the community obeyed. To make such codes meaningful, they included a prehistory narrative. This was latter divided in to five sections giving us the Pentateuch^[57]. After many changes and modifications, the Torah or Pentateuch text was finalized about 200 B. C. In the second stage, we have the writings of the prophets and the history around them^[58]. The citation of earlier prophets by the latter prophets lead us to believe that there were some collections of the earlier prophets already in circulation. The hagiography or the collection of miscellaneous writings is the third stage in the formation of sacred writings. This is the last to be accepted in the sacred writings. These books vary greatly in form, content like poetry, wisdom apocalyptic literature and history too^[59]. This collection grew from a very small beginning.
The formation of the New testament was also a gradual process. The primitive Christian community conceived the Christian kerygma in the patterns of thought of the world which was prevalent in their time. Just like the Old Testament, the surrounding cultural background was an influential factor in explaining the faith in Jesus of Nazareth. Judaism and the Old Testament writings too had an influence in the formation of the New testament. The Old Testament was always interpreted to agree with the New Testament not Vice versa^[60]. The letters of Paul, which was written to solve the particular problems of the particular primitive churches, was the first in order in the New testament. As Luke points out, "Generally the books of the New testament were all written roughly between A. D. 50 - 110 and immediately after their publication, most of them were recognized as inspired and canonical"^[61].

2. The Bible and History

The Bible contains a substantial amount of history. This does not mean that the biblical writers wrote an accurate objective history. "Both New and the Old testaments are human expressions or human theologies that express man's faith convictions" says William Duggan^[62]. Even in the so-called historical books of the Old Testament, the writers were not concerned with history, rather the promotion of religion and faith. In order to promote a definite religious stance they judged the characters in the traditional stories, myths and fables according to the conformity of their religious stance^[63]. For example, in the mythical narration of the creation and the dramatized exodus event, it is very hard for us to sort out historical fact from theological interpretation. There is neither chronological order nor exact historicity in the recorded events. The Bible deals with interpreted events.
The Bible begins with the story of creation in Genesis and ends with the story of the new creation in Revelation. As Bede Griffiths points out, "The whole story of Bible is thus set within the context of the cosmic myth of creation, destruction and recreation"^[64]. However, there are also theologians and Bible scholars who claim that the faith convictions put down in the Bible are more historical than cosmological^[65]. According to the belief of the Hebrews, their God entered into their life situation and due to that fact the tiny nomadic group became a nation, facing many political, social, cultural and religious upheavals. Every fall in their life was attributed to their infidelity to Yahweh and every success in history, to their faithfulness to Yahweh who made a covenant with them at Mt. Sinai. Since the Israelites saw every moment of their life in this faith-outlook, the Bible, which was written by them, deviates a little from pure history. For, various types of historical data, genealogies, census figures, annals, chronicles and the deeds of their leaders are all oven together in a distinctively religious, didactic fashion to teach people religion and moral. Therefore, the Bible is not history rather Bible contains history.

3. Inspiration and Revelation

Inspiration in general signifies the divine origin of the Bible. The idea of the Divine Origin of the sacred Books appears in Judaism between 400 B. C. and 100 A. D.^[66] The spiritual leaders of Judaism gave much respect and veneration to the 'Torah' and in the second place the 'prophets' and the writings inspiration was understood in a strict sense, that is, God communicated the work of the text to the writer. Therefore, each word in the Bible contained the revelation of God. In the NT, the idea of inspiration is explicitly seen in Pauline writings. "All scripture is inspired by God and profitable for teaching, for re-proof, for correction and for training in righteousness..." (2 Tim 3,16-17). In another text, "... no prophecy ever came by the impulse of man, but men moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God." (2 Pet.1,21). This two verses however did not give the idea of verbal dictation rather suggest the divine impulse in the sacred writings^[67].
The fathers of the Church from the very early times believed and affirmed the divine origin and authority of the Bible. The church discovers inspiration in a sacred writing by canonizing it^[68]. Canon marks the boundary between what is revealed and what is not. More than that Canon preserves "it pristine purity - as it proceeded from the mouth of God"^[69]. By canonizing a writing, the church fathers promulgated the intimate connection between the Bible and the Church. Thus, early in the 2^nd century we see the NT is considered equal to OT in authority.
The question of inspiration became a theological problem in the 19^th century. Vatican I declared that the Church accepts the sacred books not because her authority does approve them, although of human origin, not because they contain revelation free from error, but because God is their author through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit^[70]. Through inspiration God is the author of the Bible in such a way that the Bible is his word. The inerrancy in the Bible is understood in terms of human linguistic usage. That is to say, the popular language, figures of speech, folklore, legend and myth that crept into the Bible that causes the problem^[71]. The Semitic mind that formulated the Bible is not today's scientific thinking. Therefore, inerrancy in terms of literary forms, personal style of the writers is obvious. This does not in anyway disvalue the inspiration and revelation of the Bible, nor reduce the word of God into word of man.

B. Visions in the Bible

Every religion contains traditions of vision experiences by holy men and women and every sacred book therefore has vision narratives. In the Bible, visions were a means of man's experience of divine, God's self-revelation and the means to know the future.

1. Nature of Visions

The vision narratives in the Bible follow certain particular pattern. There is a detailed description of the person who experiences of what he saw, the date, time etc. The vision often ends with a report about the feeling and experience during and after the vision^[72]. In visions, the cognition and imagination of an individual plays a great role and it stimulates every reader to enter into that experience. Every vision narrative has a basic message to say in that particular context and situation.
Dreams, appearances of Angels and other heavily beings and other extraordinary phenomena mark the experience of a vision (Gen 28,12-17; 16,7-14; Ex 3,2.6). Various means of divination too were considered as means to assist in the will of God; oracles were sought to hear the word of God. The prophetic writings are filled with visions, and it is mainly through visions that the prophets received divine message (Is 1,1; Ek 37,1.14). Knowledge of vision and its correct interpretation gave hope, consolation and answer to many of the problems of the people.

2. Dreams and Visions

Dreams and visions were considered in the ancient near east as messages emanating from the supernatural power. Great importance was attached to their contents and interpretation. According to the Bible, God makes direct contact with human beings through dreams and visions. It is very difficult to trace the borderline between visions and dreams in the Bible. "...Your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions." (Joel 2,28). Often a vision is associated with Dreams. Where dream and vision are mentioned together, the dream is the form and the vision is the matter^[73].
In both the Testaments, significance is attached to dreams (Gn 37,6; 41,25; Mt 1,20; 2,13 etc.). Dream is also considered as the sure source of divine message. For example in the book of I Samuel, Saul the King of Israel tells his inability to get divine response through dreams (1 Sam 28,6). The idea of incubation that is sleeping in a sacred place in order to receive a divine communication can also be traced in the OT (Gn 28,12-17; 2 Chor 1, Kg 3,5). However, in these texts, it is not clear about the intention on the part of the sleeper^[74]. The person chances to sleep in a holy place and becomes the recipient of a message through dream, without having consciously sought.
Dreams are inferior medium of revelation. The superior one is the direct communication with God, which is clear, and not in dark speech (Nu 12,6-8). Yahweh advocates persecution upon those who dream false and lying dreams, (Det 13,1) and a habitual dreaming is no sure sign of divine inspiration (Jer 23,25; Ecc 5,7). When we compare the dream narratives of the Bible to that of the Babylonian and Egyptian literature of that time, the predominant factor we see is that he Hebrew's lack of pre-occupation with these phenomena^[75]. Even the dreams of non-Israelites are also considered divine revelation (Gn 20,3; 41,1-7).

3. Apocalyptic Writings and Visions

The apocalyptic literature, both in the New and Old Testaments are filled with visions and prophetic insights. It is a kind of literature that arose due to the lack of interest in the present political social forces^[76]. The people of Israel were expecting a messiah to stabilize their life. Their daily problems and frustrations over the failure of the Kingdom of God to materialize as they thought, gave rise for this kind of literature. Apocalyptic literature that speak in length about visions of cosmological and mythical nature, were considered symbolic interpretation of the history. For example, the vision of 4 beasts by Daniel (Dan 7), (the themes are found in Greek and Canaanite mythology too) gives a message of confidence; God will establish his kingdom and exalt his literary device used by the author to disclose in cryptic symbolism of future events or events that were hypothetically future to the persons, to whom they were ascribed^[77]. The vision becomes the same literary medium in the book of Revelation, Esdras etc. A significant individual of the community becomes the seer or pseudonymously attributed to such a figure. The visions in these writings are not historical. Often the seers wrote as if they had received visions of God's cosmic kingdom and the eschathalogical dreams connected with it.

C. Vision Narratives in the Bible

"Supernatural vision is a charisma through which an individual perceives some object that is naturally invisible to man"^[78]. In the Bible, visions proceed from God and His assistance is sought for interpretation. All the vision narratives in the Bible may fall into four categories: Theophany, Visions of direction, Visions of instruction and Visions of prediction.

1. Theophany

Theophany means the appearance of God to Man. In the OT it is a repeated saying that 'no man can see God and live' (Ex 19,21; 33,20). There are also narrations in the OT, which talks about human beings entering into contact with God and other supernatural beings through visions and survived such experiences (Gn 32,20; Judg 6,22-23). The whole of OT is filled with the repeated self-revelation of God, often through visions. Pentateuch we have many theophany narratives where God takes human form and converse with human beings. For example in Genesis 3, we have a narration in which the man and his wife heard the sound of the Lord God walking in the garden. The Lord converses with the human beings and questions them when they disobey him. In Genesis Chapter 18, God appears to Abraham in a human form. Abraham experienced the presence of God, as if meeting a stranger. There are many similar vision narratives where God takes human form and appears in the Yahweh's tradition. In the Elohist tradition, theophany comes from above. That is God speaks from heaven (Gn 21,17) or appears in dream (Gn 20,3; 28,12).
In the later developments, visions of direct conversation with God were replaced by the editors with many surrogates like His Face (Deut 31,11) His Angel (Exod 14,19) His Spirit (Is 63,14) His Word (Ps 32,6) etc.^[79] In the prophetic literature, usually, the Lord appears surrounded by mythological elements. For example, the vision of Ezekiel in the first chapter of his book, the prophet sees the vision of God. He sees God as a separate entity, above this profane and common world. The fearful natural phenomena like earthquake, lightening, fire etc. elicit the feelings and thus the supremacy of God is felt. Ezekiel experiences God as an awesome power, giving him commission. Thus in the theophany Ezekiel enjoys the presence of God in the cosmological panoply. There are also similar theophanies about the day of the Lord, in which visions of God come in the oriental monarchy to judge the world, to crate the world order etc.
In the NT, Jesus himself is the revelation of the father and therefore visions of theophanies are less frequent. Few manifestations of the divinity are found here and there and the transfiguration is a very important one. This event is recorded in the synoptic Gospels (Mt 17,1-8; Mk 9,2-8; Lk 9,28-36). The narrative begins with the initiative of Jesus as he leads Peter, James and John. The garments of Jesus shines like the sun. The OT personalities Moses and Elijah appears and Jesus converse with them, which he had to accomplish at Jerusalem (Lk 9,31). A cloud over shadowed them and a voice came out, "This is my son, my chosen, listen to him" (Lk. 9,35)
This vision is a clear revelation of Jesus to his disciples. This theophany is often interpreted by some as a post resurrection appearance, symbolic one that portrays the mission of Christ to fulfill the law and the Moses etc. Although it is difficult to prove the historicity of the message of the vision from the narratives, it is clear that Jesus is declared son of God.

2. Visions of Direction and Instruction

Most of the vision narratives fall under this category in Bible. Though the visions point to a special awareness of God^[80], it is a means of divine direction. For example, the knowledge received by the prophets and seers through visions are only directions given to them by God to announce and to denounce^[81]. In Israel, there is a close association between visions and the function of prophets. A prophet is mainly a man of visions; that is a 'seer' (1 Sam 9,9). Visions are the medium through which a prophet receive direction from God and instructs the people. For example, the vision of the burning bush which Moses experienced in the Desert (Ex 3,1-4,17) Moses' call and commission came while he was tending the sheep in the desert near Horeb. He saw a burning bush that was not consumed by fire. Moses heard the voice of God from the fire that directed and instructed him to deliver the Hebrews from the land of Egypt. Yahweh also instructed Moses to perform miracles before Pharaoh and to request the people's release. Thus, the vision of Moses plays an important role in the life of Moses, and in the liberation of Israel.
It is also a common phenomenon in the life of Kings and other leaders to have visions by which they receive directions and instructions, both for the person and for the community they represent. In the book of Samuel, Saul King of Israel inquired of the Lord and the Lord did not answer him either by dreams or by urim or Prophets (1 Sam 28,6,15). This shows that God communicates through visions to direct and instruct.

3. Visions of Prediction

The prediction of future is one of the salient features of the prophets^[82]. Direction is frequently sought in understanding the content and function of visions as 'foretelling or prediction'. The prophets who were deeply involved in the life of people were expected to say something significant concerning the future, and the prophets fulfilled this from their visions^[83].
A classical example of vision of prediction is the prophetic dreams of Joseph in the Book of Genesis. Joseph had dreams that were fulfilled in the future. For example in Chapter 37, we have the dream of Sheaves. It was fulfilled in the later years, when Joseph was in Egypt. Similarly, there are lot of references in the Bible to hold the view that visions can predict the future.

CHAPTER III

VISION OF SUN GOD TO KUNTI

Supernatural birth is a common phenomenon in every religion. In Mahabharata, too we see many personalities born in a supernatural way. For example the birth of the Pandavas. Yadhishthira was born to Dharma, Bhima was the son of Vayu, Arjuna by Indra, Nakula and Sahadeva were sons of Asvins^[84]. Thus, all the sons of Kunti were born by divine intervention because her husband Pandu was cursed by a sage whom he killed unknowingly while hunting, became unable to have offspring. By a mantra, Kunti had five sons. Besides, this story there is an interesting narrative of a Virginal conception of Kunti before her marriage. This vision of Sun God to Kunti is situated in the Adi Parva of Mahabharata (1, ex1).

A. Vision Narrative

1. Setting of the Vision

Kunti served sage Durvasa who came to the palace of King Kuntibhoja to the utmost. One day in order to test Kunti, the Rishi asked her to be ready with his food by the time he took his bath. There was hardly a little time left for Kunti to prepare the food. When the Sage came, the food was very hot and steaming and the Sage meaningfully looked at the back of Kunti. Realizing the meaning, Kunti, turned her back to the Sage to place the plate of food thereon. Kunti showed no sign of pain, though her back was burning with heat. Pleased at this utmost service, the sage taught her a mantra. The sage blessed her with this mantra with the effect that the very moment of invocation, at whichever 'deva' it may be directed, will impregnate her. In order to test the efficacy of the mantra, Kunti one day invoked the Sun God with the mantra and the Sun god appeared to her in the form of a Brahman in youth^[85].

2. The Recipient

Kunti, the sister of Krishna's father Vasudeva, and the daughter of Sura, is the recipient of the vision. Her real name was Pritha^[86]. King kuntibhoja had no children and he took Pritha as his adopted daughter. Pritha was known as Kunti from then on. Pritha or Kunti was unrivalled for beauty on earth^[87]. Kunti, the recipient of the vision was thus living in the palace of king and serving the God men who come there. She was so good in virtue and character; her service pleased even the Sage Durvasa, a terrible brahmana of rigid vows. The age of Kunti is not known. However, one thing about her is that she was a virgin.

3. Central Message

When Kunti addressed the Mantra, given to her by Rishi Durvasa, just to satisfy her curiosity, God Surya approached her saying, "Here I am, O black eyed girl! Tell me what I am to do for thee!" (Adi Parva cx 1). Kunti understands the consequence of her unwanted curiosity. Sun God did not utter a word about his mission, nor did he explain his coming. On the contrary, he asks Kunti 'What I am to do for you!'. By his mere presence, Kunti understands the message. A non-verbal communication takes place between two. The message though not narrated, becomes clear. The efficacy of the mantra itself is the message, that is the vision of Sun God, which will lead her to be an unmarried mother.

4. Reaction

The reaction by Kunti to the vision of Surya is terrible. Her reaction came in these fearful words:

O Slayer of foes, A certain Brahmana gave me this formula of invocation as a boon and, O Lord, I have summoned thee only to test its efficacy. For this offence, I bow to thee for thy grace. A woman whatever be her offence, always deserveth Pardon.^[88]

In these words of reply, we can see two factors that causes Kunti to have these reactions. In the first place, there is the fear of pregnancy or unmarried motherhood^[89]. Kunti clearly visualizes her future situation as that of bearing a child out of wedlock. A quite normal fear of any woman. In the second place, there is the feeling of Kunti that she had offended the Sun God. This is evident in the fearful plea of Kunti. "I have summoned thee only to test its (the mantra) efficacy", and her begging for pardon saying, "for this offence I bow of thee for thy grace". These two factors, her feeling that she had offended the Sun God and her fear of pregnancy is clearly pointed out by her in the last verse, "A Woman whatever be her offence, always deserves pardon". Thus, Kunti begs the Sun God to leave her untouched.
To this, Surya replies in a different way. He explains his inability to leave without fulfilling his mission, saying, "My approach can not be fruitless, it must bear fruit". Here we see Surya is nothing before the power of the Mantra. If pronounced, he (Surya) has no other choice than to fulfill or to oblige to the mantra. Therefore, Surya argued that his coming could not be in vain and Kunti would have to yield. Further, the Sun God understands the fearful state of the maiden and asks her to cast of her fears and requests her to grant him her embraces^[90].
As a crown of all these happenings, Surya assured Kunti of a boon that even though a Child was born to her from him that will not affect her virginity. This gift was given to her precisely to allay hear fears^[91].

5. Conclusion

In the concluding part of the vision we have two fulfillments: immediately she gave birth to a son Karna; Kunti regained her virginity. Karna was born in the sight of the Sun God, for as Rajaji quotes, "Divine births take place immediately without the nine months weary course of mortal gestation^[92]. God disappears only after he sees, his mission fulfilled and the boon he promised takes place".

B. Criticism

1. Historicity of the Vision

Sacred writings contain various types of historical data, genealogies, chronicles etc. This does not mean that every narration in the scriptures is history. In Mahabharata, Vyasa was not recording so much history but historic realities clothed in symbols, myths and in ordinary tales. Kunti might be a historical figure in the way she comes in the story of Mahabharata. Many scholars today agree the possibility of a great war that might have taken place centuries back, and the mother of the Heroes of the epic (Pandavas) is an inevitable character.
When we analyze the vision or speak about its historicity, many questions will come to our mind. The first question that comes to our mind is this, "Is it possible to summon any celestial being by a mere 'mantra'?" The next question that comes to our mind is, "Is it possible for a woman to conceive a child by a celestial being?" If we can give a reasonable answer to these questions, we can speak about the historicity. The words of John Hick is of great value here, "the presence of the devil (or any celestial being) is a strong indication that we are in the region of fairy tale"^[93].
There are many other factors in the vision narrative to deny its historicity. Kunti gave birth to a child 'immediately without the nine months weary course of mortal gestation'. This idea too is a strong indication of lack of historicity. The vision's puranic and or mythic nature reach its climax when Vyasa (the author) says that Kunti once again became a Virgin. Thus, 'from the sage's imparting of the mantra of Kunti, to the departure of the Sun God after the birth,' we are in the fantastic world of myth.

2. Significance of the Vision in Mahabharata

The vision is very significant in Mahabharata. This vision is written in view of certain following incidents in the epic 'Pandu the husband of Kunti went hunting. A sage and his wife were sporting in the forest in the guise of deer. Pandu shot the male with an arrow, all ignorant of the fact that it was a sage in disguise. Stricken to death the Rishi cursed Pandu saying, "you will meet death, the moment you taste the pleasures of the bed". To avoid death, Pandu lived a life of abstinence. Thus, an offspring was denied to Pandu and Kunti. In view of this situation, in the later part of the epic, the author narrates the story of the vision of the Sun God. The vision though appears to be a different one, it has an indirect connection to this main story, and the heroes of the Epic. Though the vision is the outcome of the curiosity of Kunti, it indirectly strengthens the later story that the Pandavas were born to Gods miraculously because of Pandu's inability to father a child. Even more so, in Mahabharata the birth of Pandavas were not narrated in such details. It was mentioned that Pandu urged Kunti to use the mantra and thus five Pandavas were born of the Gods^[94]. Since the efficacy of the mantra has been proved in the vision of Sun God, Vyasa does not narrate the birth of Pandavas. In this way, the vision has a significant place in Mahabharata.

3. Theology of the Vision

To theologize the vision, let us analyze the vision in three parts. First, there is the pronunciation of the mantra by Kunti and the coming of the Sun God. Here Kunti pronounces the mantra without realizing the consequences. She did not recite it with a purpose, she did so just for fun and out of curiosity. The consequences were great. The Sun God appeared. In this incident, the effect of the mantra remains independent of the reciter. That is to say, with or without intention if recited, the effect takes place automatically. This is what we see in the vision of the Sun God to Kunti. He comes when the mantra was recited. A magical reaction from the part of the Sun God. The Sun God then is not free in this sense, he had to go to the presence of Kunti even though she recited the mantra for no purpose. The mantra overpowers God. God is not free to act independently of the mantra. Therefore in the second part of the vision when Kunti pleaded with the God to depart, telling that she was an unmarried girl and afraid of the consequences, Surya narrates his inability and forces Kunti to yield to him. In the third part of the vision once the effect of the mantra is realized, God becomes free and gracious. This is evident from the words of Vyasa "After the birth of the child, the illustrious Tapana (Surya) granted unto Pritha (Kunti) her maidenhood and ascended to heaven" (Adiparva CXI).

CHAPTER IV

THE VISION OF AN ANGEL TO MARY

Mary of Nazareth had a vision of an Angel. The angel gave the message that she will conceive and bear a son while remaining a virgin. In the NT, Mathew and Luke narrate this vision, and their divergences are noteworthy. Mathew's vision account is folkloric and imaginative while Luke's account is not so^[95]. Since both the evangelists composed the vision narrative from two different sources, there is the possibility of folkloric and mythical elements to intermingle with the original story. Since both the evangelists narrate the same story, some authors consider it as traditionally passed down from genuine family memories^[96].
For our study purpose, let us concentrate on Luke's vision narrative, which shows signs of considerable literary artistry and organization. The whole narration and its literary style appear to be inspired by a distant and sacred past^[97].

A. Vision Narrative

1. Setting of the Vision

In the OT God promised the people of Israel, a messiah. The people of Israel with great expectation await the birth of the messiah. Every Jewish woman desired that the messiah should be born in her womb. Against this historical religious background the angel Gabriel appears to Mary in a vision. In Luke's vision narrative, the angel addresses Mary as 'Virgin'; and Mary was betrothed to Joseph. This idea of virgin birth was in the mind of the narrator that is why he puts these words into the mouth of the angel^[98].

2. Recipient

The angel appears to a simple girl of Galilee. She was betrothed to Joseph and still a virgin. Her state is curious; she has not lived with her husband^[99]. The virgin's name was 'Mary' (Lk 1,27). The word Mary derives from the Hebrew word 'Miriam' means 'beloved'.
The name Mary bears her personality, 'beloved'. God loved a woman and it was Mary, the beloved of the Lord. What made her the beloved of the Lord? Every person has in mind a blue print of the one he likes and loves which Carl Jung calls 'anima and animus'. Love at first sight is actually the fulfillment of this desire, the realization of the dream. Similarly, God had in mind a perfect model of a woman, a blue print of the one he loved. He saw that blue print in Mary and therefore, send his angel to praise as 'beloved'.

3. Central Message

The Central Message of the vision comes in the verses, "you shall conceive in your womb and bear a son" (Lk 1,31). This is a stereotyped formula often used in the OT annunciations. The expression here, 'you shall conceive' can be understood as either a present (already pregnant) or a future event^[100].
The Angel does not stop with the message of Mary's conception. The vision further progresses by the command of the angel to name the child. According to Jewish custom, the father has to name the child. However, in this vision, Mary is asked to name the child. In the OT, there are references, where divinely favored women name their children (Gn 16,11; Judg 13,24). Here too, the angel asks Mary to name the child as 'Jesus'.

4. Reaction

The reaction of Mary to the vision is quite natural for any girl. "How shall this be, since I have no husband" (Lk 1,34). Many authors consider this not as a biological statement of Mary's puzzlement but rather it is the inner idea of Mary that she had already made up her mind to remain a virgin^[101]. This hypothetical vow was seen confirmed by the post NT tradition that after the virginal conception Mary remained a virgin for the rest of her life^[102]. Mary's reaction comes in two ways; one in silent, another in more expressive form. When the angel gave the message in the vision, Mary was troubled. This expresses her deep surprise, but no fear is reported concerning Mary. She wondered how a divine messenger could greet her in this way. The humble acceptance of the angel's invitation to be the Mother of god, shows her religiosity in co-operating with God, in his divine mission of salvation.

5. Fulfillment

This appearance of an angel to Mary is not her initiative. It was God's own initiative. The fulfillment of the vision is the action of the Holy Spirit (Lk 1,35). In the OT, the spirit of the Lord was moving over the face of the earth (Gn 1,2), before the creation of the world. Here, in this vision, the Holy Spirit overshadowed the virgin, and a new creation took place in Mary's womb. However, Mary had not asked for a sign but the angel does offer her a sign i. e., the pregnancy of Elizabeth at her old age (Lk 1,36).
The fulfillment here is not only a personal one but it is a fulfillment for the whole of humanity. That is messiah is given to the whole world. The expectation of the Israel is fulfilled through the vision.

B. Criticism

l. Historicity of the Vision

The fact that an angel or any divine being appears on earth is not historical narration but rather a legend. That is, a historical background is indicated with the golden colors of imagination^[103]. The legitimate questions that arise are, 'why don't angels appear today? On what basis shall we accept that the angel appeared two thousand years ago? Is it possible for a heavenly being to appear to human being, as narrated in the vision?'. Moreover, of Mary's question, 'how is it possible' (Lk 1,34) has loose ends. Mary was betrothed to Joseph. Why then does she not interpret the angel's promise as referring to her own marriage with Joseph^[104].
Even more, it is difficult for us today to accept that a human being is conceived without the help of a male. All these factors affect the historicity of the vision. R. E. Brown understands this problem in the following way. He considers the verses in Luke 1: 34-35 "How shall this be, since I have no husband?..." as a later insert. The narrative is sound and coherent without this particular passage^[105].

2. Significance of the Vision in Bible

The OT authors did not foresee in detail the life of Jesus at Nazareth. The prophets of the OT were concerned mainly with their own times and not with the future. When the NT authors claim that the OT prophecies are fulfilled in Jesus, they go beyond the vision of the OT authors. For instance, the 'Young Woman' in Is 7, 14 is not a direct reference for Mary^[106].
When we look at this vision from the NT point of view it is of greater importance. The belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Messiah, Redeemer, Savior etc., are the guiding force behind this vision narrative in the NT. The birth narrative or the particular vision of which we are speaking serves the faith expression of the author, formulated by the early Christian Community.

3. Theology of the Vision

As Brown understands it, the vision narrative in Luke was composed based on Christian Christological reflections that Jesus is the Messiah^[107]. The vision narrative far from being an obstacle to faith, is an aid to faith. It is an organic part of the majestic picture of Jesus. When we take vision as a particular entity, it may sound meaningless because of its mythical coloring. However, when it is looked in the economy of salvation, it is the love of God put in human words. It is the fulfillment of the plan of God in the person of Christ.
As far as the virginal conception is concerned then, the existing Christian thought that virginal conception is a more noble way of conceiving a child than in marital intercourse, is in fact the force behind the narrative. Therefore, in the past, the denial of virginal conception has often been accompanied by a denial that Jesus is the son of God^[108].

CHAPTER V

THE THEOLOGY OF VISIONS
IN MAHABHARATA AND BIBLE

Our study is based on visions in two sacred books belonging to two different religions. The method we have to follow here to compare and contrast the visions in these two religions should be a dialogical method. That is, as Vempeny understands, 'we should try to understand from the point of view of Hinduism and Christianity respectively; we must be committed to our religion and at the same time, we must enter deeply into the religions of theirs'^[109]. Let me invite you all to enter into the comparative assessment of visions in Mahabharata and the Bible from a love centered rather than doctrinal perspective.

A. Similarities and Differences

1. Narration

Religious language is mythical in nature, because in and through myths, the essence of religion is better explained. This mythological approach is a basic form of human thought from which a human intellect can hardly absent itself. The fantastic stories of Gods in epics, puranas and scriptures are in fact, of little importance apart from religion. However, the mythical figures are deeply significant to a religious man. As Bede points out, "They are all symbols of ultimate reality"^[110]. This point is clear when we look into the vision narratives in Mahabratha and the Bible.
Both the scriptures have vision narratives in a mythical, folkloric form. From our small study in the previous chapters, we can understand that a historical fact or an important truth is often told in a vision narrative in a fantastic creative, imaginative manner. Since it is myth that makes dogmas intelligible by exposing them in terms of human action and language, there is no wonder that the vision narratives that speaks of religious truths are mythical in Mahabharata and the Bible. The visions have no difficulty in creating an atmosphere where Gods and human beings can converse with each other in ordinary human fashion. In both the vision narratives, we see the God or an angel appearing to human beings. The person at the first sight fails to recognize the celestial being, when he/she understands or recognizes the being they converse and the message is exchanged and the heavenly being disappears. Let us for example look back to the vision of Sun God to Kunti, and the vision of an angel to Mary. Both have more or less a similar pattern and hardly any major contrasting elements.

2. Nature and Purpose

Though there are certain similarities in the nature of visions in both the scriptures, we can find some contrasting elements. First, there are theophanies in both the scriptures. God reveals himself to the human beings. In the Bible, it is God who takes the initiative and in Mahabharata often it is man's initiative that wins the favor of God. For example in the transfiguration, narrative in the Bible (Mt 17,1-8) Jesus takes the disciples to a mountain. Similarly in all the narratives. It is because a vision is a grace from God. In Mahabharata, it is the other way. Man takes initiative and sees the glory of God. Through their austerity, devotion, etc. human beings win the favor of Gods and they in return, manifest their divinity. For example, Naratha's Vision of Narayana, Krishna's vision of Siva etc. Sometimes in order to show their supremacy, God manifests himself. For example, the vision of Krishna to Uttanka. Here too, the contrast remains; it is not the grace of God.
The visions of invocations are less familiar in the Bible, whereas Mahabharata has. This also has the same theology behind, man's initiative that causes a vision of god. This also has the same theology behind, man's initiative that causes a vision of God. This idea goes to abnormal extremes in some visions, where, once certain formalities are performed, the Gods are bound to come. This is evident in the vision of Sun God to Kunti. Once the mantra was recited, the effect follows automatically.
In the Bible, we have visions of direction and instruction. God directs a person, instructs a person, or directs a person to instruct. Such ideas are not found in the Mahabharata. Here again the reason stems from the previous idea. It is the God who takes the initiative and therefore whenever there is a need God converses through visions.
In the Bible, dreams were recognized as an important means of divine communication. For example the dreams of Joseph in Genesis (37,6-9; 40,12). The revelatory values of dreams are very high in the prophetic messages. Mahabharata gives less importance to dreams. This does not mean that it denies it utterly. Mahabharata mentions a dream of Karna, in which Sun God warned him about the danger of Indra^[111]. However, it is evident from the vision narratives that less importance is given to dreams.
Another important contrasting factor, we see in the nature of visions in Mahabharata is that once God appears in a vision to anybody, a boon is granted by the Gods. This is something unique to the vision narratives in Mahabharata. For example in the vision of Krishna to Uttanka, water in the desert is the boon; in the vision of Sun God to Kunti, her virginity was given back as a boon. Similarly in every other vision narrative. Vision narratives in the Bible however do not have this element.

B. The Significance of the Visions

1. Significance of the Visions in Mahabharata

As an epic Mahabharata narrates the story of the Great War between the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The intention of the author in composing the work is however not religious. He has tried to write the story of the war in a leisurely way^[112]. Therefore, the vision narratives are not the primary motive in Mahabharata. They are only of secondary importance to the author. Today, it is not so. Mahabharata is valued as the smriti literature. That is, it is a partially revealed scripture. The moral and religious truths of the vision narratives are highly significant to any reader of good faith. God speaks to us through varied ways. Visions are the narrations of Man-God encounter. The narration of this encounter may be the myths, fables, stories, folklores, imaginations, but the fact remains, they tell about our relationship with God. Therefore, the vision narratives are significant.
This man-God encounter in the vision narratives have significant roles in the life of every reader. In the vision narratives, we often see that the Gods are in constant touch with human beings. Similarly, human beings are in constant converse with Gods. The vision narratives in Mahabharata, never take us away from Gods, rather they try to unite us to Gods. They promulgate a profound theology. God is not an unapproachable entity, but is within our reach: though they are superior beings, a man by his effort can reach that supremacy. God can exist only in relation to human beings; therefore in Mahabharata they constantly meet each other. Thus the visions in Mahabharata in every aspect tell the whole theology of Hindu religion in its fascinating mythical form.

2. Significance of the Visions in Bible

The Bible speaks about the man-God relationship in and through history. God is the sole author of life. He enters into human life visibly through visions. We have no access to God except through the medium of signs. The vision of God is possible for a human being only after his death, where he will see God face to face^[113].
The Bible is the faith expression of the people of Israel. They understood God only in relation to their life and history. Whatever good happened in their life, they attributed it to God, because God became the part of their life. Whatever evil they faced, they attributed it to their negligence in being faithful to God. In this context, visions are significant because it is only through this means, human beings had contact with God.
God's initiative and gratuitous gift reveal him to us. It is God who guides us; it is God who governs us above all. The vision narratives in Bible are God's initiative. They take place in history. It shows clearly that God acts in and through history. The visions in Bible evidently show the guiding hand of God in every sphere of our life.
The theophanies reveal God's glory. The prophetic visions reveal God's plan for us. He corrects us, directs us and thus plays a significant role in our life.

3. The Relevance of Visions Today

Scriptures, which are the written records of human being's faith experience, is meaningful today only when we relate it to our lives. The vision narratives in the scriptures are told in a symbolic way and becomes meaningful, intelligible and useful to modern man only when we interpret them existentially. That is to say 'God's word addressed to me here and now'. It is a positive approach into the visions of sacred scriptures to seek the meaning for human existence. Existential interpretation is necessary today because of our quest to find an identify for ourselves. The vision narratives despite their mythological language do answer the problems of human existence. When visions speak about the existential problems like mystery of existence, finitude, guilt, death, hope freedom etc.
In the vision narratives, the people of that time narrated their life experience, their God experience in their own words. These vision narratives are external stimuli for us to see God in our life situations and experience his intervention in our lives too.

CONCLUSION

The sacred books of different religions belong to the very constitutive structure of the society in which these religions originated. The study we had in this thesis high lightens this view very well.
Both the scriptures (Mahabharata and Bible) speak about visions. For Mahabharata, human being's initiative take them to the supreme reality. However, for the Semitic culture, it is not so. For them, it is God who takes the initiative and the contact with the supreme being is a grace (free gift of God).
This is a real contrast. One begins from below (human beings) the other comes from above (God). But both have the same objective, the vision of God. Both explain this objective with myths, fables, folklores, stories etc.
One is more cosmological the other is historical. This does not mean one has no history and the other has no cosmology.
What then are we to conclude? We have here two ways of approaching the one reality. Both are valid within their different cultural contexts.

FOOTNOTES

^[1] Keith Ward, Images of Eternity, London 1987, 41

^[2] B. Griffiths, The Marriage of the East and West, London 1982, 171

^[3] Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 14, 716

^[4] J. D. Douglas, The New Bible Dictionary, England 1962, 1312

^[5] R. C. Zachner, Mysticism sacred and profane, New York 1972, 1

^[6] R. C. Zachner, Drugs Mysticism and Make-believe, London 1972, 41

^[7] ibid, 87

^[8] A. Jeffery, The interpreters Dictionary of the Bible, New York 1962, 868

^[9] E. Hamilton, The voice of the spirit, London 1976, 45

^[10] K. M. Sen, Hinduism, England 1973, 72

^[11] G. Fenerstein, Introduction to the Bhagavad Gita, London 1974, 46

^[12] Rajagopalachari, Mahabharata, Bombay 1988, 17

^[13] ibid, 17

^[14] King Janamejaya in revenge for death of his father, who had been bitten by a snake, offered a sacrifice of snakes, in which a vast number of snakes were sacrificed. According to the myth, Janamejaya subsequently killed a Brahman, and that in order to expiate this dreadful crime, he listened to a recitation of the whole of Mahabharata, which was performed by Vaisampayana, the pupil of Vyasa, the sage. J. Talboys Wheeler, India of the Vedic age, Delhi 1973, 6

^[15] G. R. Garg, An Encyclopedia of Indian Literature, Delhi 1982, 217

^[16] J. Talboys Wheeler, India in the Vedic age Delhi 1973, 6

^[17] K. M. Sen, Hinduism 72

^[18] G. R. Garg, An encyclopedia of Indian Literature, 218

^[19] G. Fenerstein, Introduction to the Bhagavad Gita, 46

^[20] G. R. Garg, An encyclopedia of Indian Literature, 216

^[21] C. V. Vaidya, The Mahabharata: A criticism, Delhi 1983, 47

^[22] ibid, 48

^[23] K. M. Sen, Hinduism 74-75

^[24] C. V. Vaidya, Mahabharata: A criticism, 56

^[25] J. Talboys Wheeler, India of the vedic age, 4

^[26] C. V. Vaidya, Mahabharata: A criticism, 62

^[27] G. M. Garg, An Encyclopedia f Indian Literature, 218

^[28] C. V. Vaidya, The Mahabharata: a Criticism, 65-66

^[29] G. Fenerstein, Introduction to Bhagavad Gita, 51

^[30] I. Vempeny, Inspiration in the non-Biblical scriptures, Bangalore 1973, 9

^[31] J. Talboys Wheeker, India in the Vedic age, 6

^[32] B. C. Sinha, Hinduism and symbol worship, Hardwar, 16

^[33] J. Talboys Wheller, India in the Vedic age, 8

^[34] K. M. Sen, Hinduism, 75

^[35] L. James, Visions of seers, Narratives of Theophany in Mahabharata, 1990

^[36] Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol, 14, 69

^[37] Rajagopalachari, Mahabharata, 189

^[38] Laine James, "Visions of Seers", 162

^[39] ibid, 166

^[40] ibid, 167

^[41] Rajagopalachari, Mahabharata, 334

^[42] Gandhari is the wife of Dhirtarshtra and Queen mother of the Kauravas

^[43] Rajagopalachari, Mahabharata, 193

^[44] ibid, 137

^[45] ibid, 137

^[46] "When Dharma declines and wrong doing flourishes, I give myself birth to restore the balance" Bhagavad-Gita (4:3)

^[47] Laine James, Visions of Seers, 164

^[48] Rajagoplallachari, Mahabharata, 126-128

^[49] Siva once in his fierce and effulgent form entered Kesari the husband of Anjana and had coitus with her. After that Vayu (wind god) also had coitus with her. Thus as a result of the sexual act by both devas Anjana got pregnant. Later Anjana was about to throw her newborn child, as it was an ugly one, Vayu intervened and saved the child. Hanuman was this child born of Siva and Vayu - Vettam Mani, Puranic Encyclopedia, 307

^[50] A. C. Myers, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary, Michigan 1987, 147

^[51] K. Luke, Companion to the Bible, Vol. I, Bangalore, 1987, 3

^[52] ibid, 9

^[53] A. C. Myers, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary, Michigan 1987, 148

^[54] K. Luke, Companion to the Bible, Vol. I, 15

^[55] ibid, 17

^[56] A. C. Myers, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary, Michigan 1987, 149

^[57] A. Jeffery, "The Canon of the OT", The Interpreters Bible, Vol. I, Abington 1980, 42

^[58] ibid, 43

^[59] A. C. Myers, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary, Michigan 1987, 454

^[60] E. J. GOOD SPEED, "The Canon of the NT", The Interpreters Bible, Vol. I, 63

^[61] K. LUKE, Companion to the Bible Vol. I, 23

^[62] W. DUGGAN, Myth and Christian Belief, Indiana 1971, 16

^[63] D. HARRINGTON, Interpreting the O.T, 1973, 27

^[64] B. GRIFITHS, The Marriage of the East and West, 111

^[65] W. DUGGAN, Myth and Christian Belief, 25

^[66] I. VEMPENY, Inspiration in the Non-Biblical Scriptures, 47

^[67] J. L. MCKENZIE, Dictionary of the Bible, Bangalore 1984, 390

^[68] ibid, 390

^[69] R. E. BROWN, "Canonicity", The Jerome Biblical Commentary, Vol. II, Bangalore, 1982, 516

^[70] ibid, 516.

^[71] J. NEUNER & J. DUPUIS, Christian Faith, Bangalore 1978, 43

^[72] A. C. Myers, Eerdmans Bible Dictionary, 1040

^[73] J. HASTINGS, Dictionary of the Bible, Edinburgh, 1024

^[74] ibid, 222

^[75] FRANCIS, Christian Community Bible, Philippines, 323

^[76] A. C. MYERS, Eerdmans Bible Dictionary, 1040

^[77] ibid, 1040

^[78] J. HASTINGS, Dictionary of the Bible, 1024

^[79] Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 14, 717

^[80] ibid, 69

^[81] J. D. DOUGLAS, The New Bible Dictionary, 1312

^[82] J. HASTINGS, Dictionary of the Bible, 1024

^[83] J. J. COLLINS, Daniel, I & II Maccabees, Wilmington

^[84] G. R. GARG, An Encyclopedia of Indian Literature 218

^[85] V. MANI, Puranic Encyclopedia, Delhi 1975, 422 - 423

^[86] RAJAGOPALACHARI, Mahabharata, 339

^[87] P. C. ROY, Mahabharata of Vyasa, Calcutta 231

^[88] ibid

^[89] RAJAGOPALACHARI, Mahabharata, 41

^[90] P. C. ROY, Mahabharata of Vyasa, 231

^[91] RAJAGOPALACHARI, Mahabharata, 41

^[92] ibid

^[93] JOHN HICK, The Myth of God Incarnate London 1977, 154

^[94] RAJAGOPALACHARI, Mahabharata, 42

^[95] R. E. BROWN, The Virginal conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus, London 1974, 54

^[96] ibid, 55

^[97] L. SABOURIN, The Gospel According to St. Luke, Bombay 1984, 5

^[98] G. MACHEN, The Virgin Birth of Christ, London 1958, 2

^[99] W. BARCLAY, The daily study Bible Gospel of Luke, Edinburgh 1975, 12

^[100] R. E. BROWN (ed) The Birth of the Messiah, London 1978, 289

^[101] R. E. BROWN (ed) Mary in the New Testament, Bangalore 1981, 114

^[102] ibid

^[103] G. MACHEN, The Virgin Birth of Christ, 320

^[104] ibid, 337

^[105] L. SABOURIN, The Gospel According to St. Luke, 66

^[106] G. MACHEN, The Virgin Birth of Christ, 356

^[107] R. E. BROWN, The Birth of the Messiah, 309

^[108] R. E. BROWN, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus, London 1974, 41

^[109] I. VEMPENY, Krishna and Christ, Anand 1988, 14

^[110] B. GRIFFITHS, The Marriage of the East and West, 171

^[111] RAJAGOPALACHARI, Mahabharata, 48

^[112] C. V. VAIDYA, The Mahabharata: A Criticism, 9

^[113] R. LATOURELLE, Theology of Revelation, New York 1966, 427

CARMELARAM THEOLOGY COLLEGE

THE THEOLOGY OF VISIONSIN MAHABHARATA AND THE BIBLE

(A comparative assessment)

A Thesis presented in partial fulfillment for Bachelor's Degree in Theology

Thomas Janetius

Bangalore, 1991

CONTENTS

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I

MAHABHARATA

A. General View on Mahabharata

1. Mahabharata an Epic

2. Mahabharata as History

3. Mahabharata as a Sacred Book

B. Visions in Mahabharata

C. Vision Narratives

1. Theophany

2. Visions by Invocation

3. Other Visions

CHAPTER II

THE BIBLE

A. General View on the Bible

1. Formation of the Bible

2. The Bible and History

3. Inspiration and Revelation

B. Visions in the Bible

1. Nature of Visions

2. Dreams and Visions

3. Apocalyptic Writings and Visions

C. Vision Narratives in the Bible

1. Theophany

2. Visions of Direction and Instruction

3. Visions of Prediction

CHAPTER III

VISION OF SUN GOD TO KUNTI

A. Vision Narrative

1. Setting of the Vision

2. The Recipient

3. Central Message

4. Reaction

5. Conclusion

B. Criticism

1. Historicity of the Vision

2. Significance of the Vision in Mahabharata

3. Theology of the Vision

CHAPTER IV

THE VISION OF AN ANGEL TO MARY

A. Vision Narrative

1. Setting of the Vision

2. Recipient

3. Central Message

4. Reaction

5. Fulfillment

B. Criticism

l. Historicity of the Vision

2. Significance of the Vision in Bible

3. Theology of the Vision

CHAPTER V

THE THEOLOGY OF VISIONS IN MAHABHARATA AND BIBLE

A. Similarities and Differences

1. Narration

2. Nature and Purpose

B. The Significance of the Visions

1. Significance of the Visions in Mahabharata

2. Significance of the Visions in Bible

3. The Relevance of Visions Today

CONCLUSION

FOOTNOTES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

THE THEOLOGY OF VISIONS
IN MAHABHARATA AND THE BIBLE

THE THEOLOGY OF VISIONS
IN MAHABHARATA AND BIBLE